It’s possible that some of these cards include mistakes, or will be confusing or misleading out of context.
I haven’t fact-checked Dando on any of these points.
Some of these cards are just my own interpretations—rather than definitely 100% parroting what the book is saying
The indented parts are the questions, the answers are in “spoiler blocks” (hover over them to reveal the text), and the parts in square brackets are my notes-to-self.
Dando says ___ used biological weapons in WW1, but seemingly only against ___.
the Germans and perhaps the French;
draft animals (e.g. horses), not humans
[This was part of sabotage operations, seemingly only/especially in the US, Romania, Norway, and Argentina. The US and Romania were neutral at the time; not sure whether Norway and Argentina were.]
Dando says the 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibits ___, but not ___, of chemical and biological weapons, and that many of the parties to the Protocol entered reservations to their agreement to make it clear that ___.
Use;
Development and stockpiling;
Although they would not use such weapons first, they were prepared to use them in retaliation if such weapons were used first against them
[And a number of offensive bio weapons programs were undertaken by major states in the interwar period. Only later in the 20th century were further arms control restrictions placed on chem and bio weapons.]
Japan’s offensive biological warfare program was unique in that ___. The program probably caused ___.
It used human experimentation to test biological agents;
The deaths of thousands of Chinese people
[This program ran from 1931-1945]
Dando mentions 6 countries as having had “vigorous” offensive biological weapons programs during WW2:
Japan, The Soviet Union, France, the UK, the US, Canada
[He doesn’t explicitly say these were the only countries with such programs, but does seem to imply that, or at least that no other countries had similarly large programs
He notes that Germany didn’t have such a program.
France’s program was interrupted by the German invasion in 1940, but was resumed after WW2.]
Dando suggests that the main or most thoroughly prepared type of British WW2 biological warfare weapon/plan was...
To drop millions of cattle cakes infected with anthrax spores onto German fields, to wipe out cattle and thus deal an economic blow to Germany’s overstretched agricultural system
[The British did make 5 million of these cakes.]
Dando says that there are 7 countries which definitely had offensive biological weapons programs in the second half of the 20th century:
The US, the UK, the Soviet Union, Canada, France, South Africa, Iraq
[He also says there’ve been numerous accusations that other countries had such programs as well, but that there isn’t definite information about them.]
Dando says that 3 countries continued to have offensive biological weapons after becoming the depository for, ratifying, and/or signing the BTWC:
Soviet Union, South Africa, and Iraq
[This was then illegal under international law. Prior to the BTWC, having such a program wasn’t illegal—only the use of bioweapons was.
I think the other 4 states that had had such programs between WW2 and 1972 stopped at that point or before then.]
During WW2, the US offensive biological weapons program was developing anti-___, anti-___, and anti-___ weapons.
personnel; animal; plant
[And the US was considering using anti-plant weapons against Japanese rice production.]
What major change in high-level US policy regarding chemical and biological weapons does Dando suggest occurred around 1956?
What does he suggest this was partly a reaction to?
Changing from a retaliation-only policy for BW and CW to a policy stating that the US would be prepared to use BW or CW in a general war for the purposes of enhancing military effectiveness [and the decision would be reserved for the president];
Soviet statements in 1956 that chemical and biological weapons would be used in future wars for the purposes of mass destruction
[Dando notes that the retaliation-only policy was in line with the US’s signature of the 1925 Geneva protocol, but also that the US didn’t actually ratify the Geneva protocol till 1975; until then it was only a signatory.]
Dando says an army report says the origin of the US’s shift (under Nixon) to renouncing biological and chemical weapons dates from...
Criticism of US application of chemical herbicides and riot control agent(s) in Vietnam starting in the 1960s
[I think this means criticism/opposition by the public.]
The UK’s work on an offensive biological weapons capability had been abandoned by...
1957
[According to a report cited by Dando.
Though Dando later indicates the UK restarted some of this work in 1961, I think particularly/only to find a nonlethal incapacitating chemical weapon.]
Dando says that, at the end of WW2, the UK viewed biological weapons as...
On a par with nuclear weapons
[“Only when the UK obtained its own nuclear systems did interest in biological weapons decline.”
I don’t know precisely what Dando means by this.]
South Africa had an offensive biological weapons program during...
The later stages of the Apartheid regime
[But it was terminated before the regime change.]
What was the scale of South Africa’s offensive biological weapons program? What does its main purpose seem to have been?
Relatively small (e.g. smaller than Iraq’s program)
Finding means of assassinating the Apartheid regime’s enemies
[Elsewhere, Dando suggests that original motivations for the program—or perhaps for some chemical weapons work? - also included the Angola war and a desire to find crowd control agents.]
What has Iraq stated about authority (as of ~1991) to launch its chemical and biological weapons?
Authority was pre-delegated to regional commanders if Baghdad was hit with nuclear weapons
[UNSCOM has noted that that doesn’t exclude other forms of use, and doesn’t constitute a proof of a retaliation-only policy.]
The approach to chemical weapons that Iraq pursued was ___, in contrast to a Western approach of ___.
Production and rapid use;
Production and stockpiling
[I’m guessing that this means that Iraq pursued the ability to produce chemical weapons shortly before they were needed, rather than having a pre-made, long-lasting stockpile of more stable versions.
Dando says a similar approach could’ve been taken towards biological weapons.]
Dando says that the main lesson from the Iraqi biological weapons program is that...
A medium-sized country without great scientific and technical resources was, within a few years, able to reach the stage of weaponising a range of deadly biological agents
What kind of vaccine does Dando say South Africa’s biological weapons program tried to find? What does someone who had knowledge of the program say the vaccine might’ve been used for, if it had been found?
An anti-fertility vaccine;
Administering to black women without their knowledge
Dando lists 6 different types of biological agents that could be used for biological weapons:
[I’m not sure whether this was meant to be exhaustive, nor whether I’m right to say these are “different types of biological agents”.
There’s also a chance I forgot one of the types he mentioned.]
Dando says that vaccination during a plague epidemic would not be of much help, because...
Immunity takes a month to build up
[Note that I haven’t fact-checked this, and that, for all I know, the situation may be different with other pathogens or newer vaccines.]
In the mid twentieth century, ___ tried to use plague-infected fleas to cause an outbreak among ___.
Japan; the Chinese
Dando notes at least 3 factors that could make the option of biowarfare or bioterrorism against animal agriculture attractive:
1. The animals are densely packed in confined areas
2. The animals reared are often from very limited genetic stock (so that a large percentage of them could succumb to a single strain of a pathogen)
3. Many/all pathogens that would be used don’t infect humans (reducing risks to the people involved in producing and using the pathogens)
[Dando implies that that third point is more relevant to bioterrorism than biowarfare, but doesn’t say why. I assume it’s because terrorists will tend to have fewer skills and resources than military programs, making them more vulnerable to accidents.]
What proportion of state-level offensive biological weapons programs (of which we have knowledge) “carefully investigated anti-plant attacks”?
Nearly all
In the 1990s, the US OTA concluded that the cheapest overt production route for 1 nuclear bomb per year, with no international controls, would cost __.
They also concluded that a chemical weapons arsenal for substantial military capability would cost __.
They concluded that a large biological weapons arsenal may cost __.
~$200 million;
$10s of millions;
Less than $10 million
[I’m unsure precisely what this meant.
I assume the OTA thought a covert route for nuclear weapons, with international controls, would be more expensive than the overt route with no international controls.]
Efforts in the 1990s to strengthen the BWC through agreement of a verification protocol eventually failed in 2001 due to the opposition from which country?
The United States
The BTWC was opened for signature in __, and entered into force in __.
1972; 1975
Dando highlights two key deficiencies of the BTWC (at least as of it entering into force in 1975):
1. There was a lack of verification measures
2. No organisation had been put in place to take care of the convention, of its effective implementation, and of its development between review conferences
[Dando notes that, in contrast to 2, there was a large organisation associated with the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Wikipedia suggests that a (very small) Implementation Support Unit for the BTWC was finally created in 2006.]
Dando highlights a US-based stakeholder as being vocally opposed to the ideas that were proposed for verifying compliance with the BTWC:
The huge US pharmaceutical industry and its linked trade associations
[I think Dando might’ve been talking about opposition to inspections in particular
Dando implies that this contributed to US executive branch being lukewarm on or sort-of opposed to these verification ideas.]
My Anki cards
Note that:
It’s possible that some of these cards include mistakes, or will be confusing or misleading out of context.
I haven’t fact-checked Dando on any of these points.
Some of these cards are just my own interpretations—rather than definitely 100% parroting what the book is saying
The indented parts are the questions, the answers are in “spoiler blocks” (hover over them to reveal the text), and the parts in square brackets are my notes-to-self.
the Germans and perhaps the French;
draft animals (e.g. horses), not humans
[This was part of sabotage operations, seemingly only/especially in the US, Romania, Norway, and Argentina. The US and Romania were neutral at the time; not sure whether Norway and Argentina were.]
Use;
Development and stockpiling;
Although they would not use such weapons first, they were prepared to use them in retaliation if such weapons were used first against them
[And a number of offensive bio weapons programs were undertaken by major states in the interwar period. Only later in the 20th century were further arms control restrictions placed on chem and bio weapons.]
It used human experimentation to test biological agents;
The deaths of thousands of Chinese people
[This program ran from 1931-1945]
Japan, The Soviet Union, France, the UK, the US, Canada
[He doesn’t explicitly say these were the only countries with such programs, but does seem to imply that, or at least that no other countries had similarly large programs
He notes that Germany didn’t have such a program.
France’s program was interrupted by the German invasion in 1940, but was resumed after WW2.]
To drop millions of cattle cakes infected with anthrax spores onto German fields, to wipe out cattle and thus deal an economic blow to Germany’s overstretched agricultural system
[The British did make 5 million of these cakes.]
The US, the UK, the Soviet Union, Canada, France, South Africa, Iraq
[He also says there’ve been numerous accusations that other countries had such programs as well, but that there isn’t definite information about them.]
Soviet Union, South Africa, and Iraq
[This was then illegal under international law. Prior to the BTWC, having such a program wasn’t illegal—only the use of bioweapons was.
I think the other 4 states that had had such programs between WW2 and 1972 stopped at that point or before then.]
personnel; animal; plant
[And the US was considering using anti-plant weapons against Japanese rice production.]
Changing from a retaliation-only policy for BW and CW to a policy stating that the US would be prepared to use BW or CW in a general war for the purposes of enhancing military effectiveness [and the decision would be reserved for the president];
Soviet statements in 1956 that chemical and biological weapons would be used in future wars for the purposes of mass destruction
[Dando notes that the retaliation-only policy was in line with the US’s signature of the 1925 Geneva protocol, but also that the US didn’t actually ratify the Geneva protocol till 1975; until then it was only a signatory.]
Criticism of US application of chemical herbicides and riot control agent(s) in Vietnam starting in the 1960s
[I think this means criticism/opposition by the public.]
1957
[According to a report cited by Dando.
Though Dando later indicates the UK restarted some of this work in 1961, I think particularly/only to find a nonlethal incapacitating chemical weapon.]
On a par with nuclear weapons
[“Only when the UK obtained its own nuclear systems did interest in biological weapons decline.”
I don’t know precisely what Dando means by this.]
The later stages of the Apartheid regime
[But it was terminated before the regime change.]
Relatively small (e.g. smaller than Iraq’s program)
Finding means of assassinating the Apartheid regime’s enemies
[Elsewhere, Dando suggests that original motivations for the program—or perhaps for some chemical weapons work? - also included the Angola war and a desire to find crowd control agents.]
Authority was pre-delegated to regional commanders if Baghdad was hit with nuclear weapons
[UNSCOM has noted that that doesn’t exclude other forms of use, and doesn’t constitute a proof of a retaliation-only policy.]
Production and rapid use;
Production and stockpiling
[I’m guessing that this means that Iraq pursued the ability to produce chemical weapons shortly before they were needed, rather than having a pre-made, long-lasting stockpile of more stable versions.
Dando says a similar approach could’ve been taken towards biological weapons.]
A medium-sized country without great scientific and technical resources was, within a few years, able to reach the stage of weaponising a range of deadly biological agents
An anti-fertility vaccine;
Administering to black women without their knowledge
Bacteria; Viruses; Toxins; Bioregulators; Protozoa; Fungi
[I’m not sure whether this was meant to be exhaustive, nor whether I’m right to say these are “different types of biological agents”.
There’s also a chance I forgot one of the types he mentioned.]
Immunity takes a month to build up
[Note that I haven’t fact-checked this, and that, for all I know, the situation may be different with other pathogens or newer vaccines.]
Japan; the Chinese
1. The animals are densely packed in confined areas
2. The animals reared are often from very limited genetic stock (so that a large percentage of them could succumb to a single strain of a pathogen)
3. Many/all pathogens that would be used don’t infect humans (reducing risks to the people involved in producing and using the pathogens)
[Dando implies that that third point is more relevant to bioterrorism than biowarfare, but doesn’t say why. I assume it’s because terrorists will tend to have fewer skills and resources than military programs, making them more vulnerable to accidents.]
Nearly all
~$200 million;
$10s of millions;
Less than $10 million
[I’m unsure precisely what this meant.
I assume the OTA thought a covert route for nuclear weapons, with international controls, would be more expensive than the overt route with no international controls.]
The United States
1972; 1975
1. There was a lack of verification measures
2. No organisation had been put in place to take care of the convention, of its effective implementation, and of its development between review conferences
[Dando notes that, in contrast to 2, there was a large organisation associated with the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Wikipedia suggests that a (very small) Implementation Support Unit for the BTWC was finally created in 2006.]
The huge US pharmaceutical industry and its linked trade associations
[I think Dando might’ve been talking about opposition to inspections in particular
Dando implies that this contributed to US executive branch being lukewarm on or sort-of opposed to these verification ideas.]