That test / class example isn’t even a case because the test is instrumental to the goal, it’s not a metric. Your U in this case is “time spent studying” which you accurately see will be un-correlatrd from “graduating” if all students (or all counterfactual “you”s) attempt to optomize it.
That test / class example isn’t even a case because the test is instrumental to the goal, it’s not a metric. Your U in this case is “time spent studying” which you accurately see will be un-correlatrd from “graduating” if all students (or all counterfactual “you”s) attempt to optomize it.